What Was The First Prison To Earn Money From Convict Labor

Penal labor in the United States is explicitly allowed by the 13th Subpoena of the U.S. Constitution: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except every bit a penalization for law-breaking whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist inside the U.s., or any place subject to their jurisdiction."^[ane] Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial cannot be forced to participate in labor programs in prison as this would violate the Thirteenth Subpoena.

Some threescore% of U.s. prisoners piece of work while incarcerated.^[2] The stated aim of penal labor in the Usa is to mitigate backsliding risks by providing training and work experience to inmates, and research shows that prisoners who participate are less probable to be re-imprisoned up to 12 years subsequently release.^[iii] Most prisoners want to work,^[four] however, some prison labor is involuntary [citation needed], with noncompliance punished by means including lone solitude.

Penal labor in the United States underwent many transitions throughout the late 19th and early and mid 20th centuries. Periods of national economical strife and security guided much of these transitions. Legislation such equally the Hawes-Cooper Human action of 1929 placed limitations on the merchandise of prison-made appurtenances. Federal institution of the Federal Prison Industries (FPI) in 1934 revitalized the prison labor arrangement following the Great Low.^[5] Increases in prison labor participation began in 1979 with the formation of the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP). The PIECP is a federal program first authorized under the Justice Organization Improvement Act of 1979.^[vi] Approved by Congress in 1990 for indefinite continuation, the programme legalizes the transportation of prison-made goods across state lines and allows prison inmates to earn market wages in private sector jobs that can get towards tax deductions, victim compensation, family support, and room and board.^{[7] [eight]}

Firms including those in the technology and food industries are often provided taxation incentives to contract prison labor, normally at below market rates.^[9] The Work Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC) serves as a federal tax credit that grants employers $2,400 for every work-release employed inmate.^[ten] "Prison in-sourcing" has grown in popularity as an alternative to outsourcing work to countries with lower labor costs. A wide variety of companies such as Whole Foods, McDonald's, Target, IBM, Texas Instruments, Boeing, Nordstrom, Intel, Wal-Mart, Victoria's Secret, Aramark, AT&T, BP, Starbucks, Microsoft, Nike, Honda, Macy'southward and Sprint and many more actively participated in prison house in-sourcing throughout the 1990s and 2000s.^{[11] [12]} Afterwards the 2021 storming of the US Capitol, it was noted that FPI would receive priority when the federal government purchases products such as office furniture to replace what was damaged in the riots.^[thirteen]

Critics of the prison house labor system fence that the portrayal of prison expansion as a means of creating employment opportunity is a particularly harmful element of the prison-industrial complex in the Usa. Some believe that reducing the economic bleed of prisons at the expense of an incarcerated populace prioritizes personal fiscal proceeds over ensuring payment of societal debt or actual rehabilitation of criminals.^[14]

Equally of 2021, inmates in federal prisons earned betwixt $0.23 to $one.15 per hour.^[15]

History [edit]

Origins [edit]

The electric current land of prison labor in the United States has distinct roots in the slavery-era economic system and society. With the passage of the 13th amendment in 1865, slavery was accounted unconstitutional. Involuntary servitude as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, was still explicitly immune.

Prison Labor Post-13th Amendment (1865–1866) [edit]

Immediately following the abolitionism of slavery in the United states of america (and ratification of the 13th subpoena), the slave labor-dependent economy of the Southward faced widespread poverty and market collapse.^[xvi] Southern lawmakers began to exploit the and so-chosen "loophole" written in the 13th amendment and turned to prison labor as a means of restoring the pre-abolition free labor force. Black Codes were enacted by politicians in the Due south to maintain white control over erstwhile slaves, namely by restricting African Americans' labor activity.^[17] Common codes included vagrancy laws that criminalized African Americans' lack of employment or permanent residence. Inability to pay fees for vagrancy crimes resulted in imprisonment, during which prisoners labored in the very aforementioned wage-complimentary positions held by slaves less than two years prior.^[xviii] Other "crimes" punishable by imprisonment (and subsequent slave labor) as per Blackness Codes included unlawful assembly, interracial relationships, violation of slave-like labor contracts, possession of firearms, making or selling liquor, selling agricultural produce without written permission from an employer, and practicing any occupation other than servant or farmer without holding a approximate-ordered license.^{[nineteen] [18]} Additionally, orphaned minors and minors removed from their homes by the state were apprenticed past courts to employers until the age of 21.^[19] Minors apprenticed under Black Codes were authorized to be forced into labor confronting their will, and amateur relationships closely resembled those of primary and slave in terms of subject and involuntary labor.^[xix] Past 1866, near all southern states had enacted private sets of Black Codes.^[17] The widespread enforcement of Black Code laws effectively used the 13th amendment's exception of penal labor to reinvent the chattel slavery economy and lodge to comply with federal law.

Prison Labor in the Reconstruction Era (1866–1877) [edit]

Betwixt 1866 and 1869, Alabama, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, and Florida became the first states in the U.S. to lease out convicts.^{[twenty] [21]} Previously responsible for the housing and feeding of the new prison labor strength, the states developed a convict leasing arrangement as a means to rid penitentiaries of the responsibility to care for the incarcerated population.^[22] Country governments maximized profits past putting the responsibility on the lessee to provide nutrient, clothing, shelter, and medical treat the prisoners. Convict labor strayed from small-scale plantation and share crop harvesting and moved toward work in the private sector. States leased out convicts to private businesses that utilized the low-cost labor to run enterprises such equally coal mines, railroads, and logging companies.^[23] Private lessees were permitted to utilise prisoner labor with very little oversight. The event was extremely poor conditions. Inadequacy of necessities similar nutrient, water, and shelter, was oftentimes exacerbated by unsafe labor practices and inhuman discipline.^[24] Nevertheless, the convict lease system prompted the southern economy'south return from devastation as the (cheap) labor supply returned to southern capitalism.

While incarceration rates continued to rise during Reconstruction, feeding the convict lease organisation, Union occupation in the South and national force per unit area began to alter the laws by which African Americans were arbitrarily imprisoned. By 1868, the last official laws of Black Code were repealed in well-nigh states.^[19] Equally Reconstruction lost its vigor, nonetheless, the Democratic party recovered and de-stigmatized casual racism in the Matrimony-washed Due south.^[19] This terminate to the reconstruction era ready the stage for time to come reinvention of Black Code laws. States configured legislation to more precisely target the poor, further criminalizing the vast bulk of one-time slaves who had non yet adjusted to a free market or accrued wealth. Mississippi'south "pig law" followed this tendency of hyper criminalization and fed the penal labor force simultaneously by tacking on outrageous sentences to violations. The "grunter constabulary" classified theft of a subcontract brute or whatever holding worth $ten or more as grand larceny. Violation carried a sentence of incarceration up to 5 years. Following enactment of the "hog law," the incarcerated population quadrupled over the following three years.^[25]

Floridian convicts leased to harvest timber in the mid-1910s.

Hired captive labor [edit]

The earliest known law permitting convicts to exist paid for their labor traces dorsum to an act passed by New York governor John Jay in 1796.^{[26] [27]} More than explicit legislation suggesting that "it may be useful to allow [prisoners] a reasonable portion of the fruits of their labor" was later enacted in 1817 under Daniel D. Tompkins, only to be repealed the following year.^{[28] [29]}

In 1924, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, held a briefing on the "ruinous and unfair competition between prison-made products and gratuitous industry and labor" (70 Cong. Rec. S656 (1928)).^[xxx] The eventual legislative response to the committee'south study led to federal laws regulating the manufacture, auction and distribution of prison-made products. Congress enacted the Hawes-Cooper Human action in 1929, the Ashurst-Sumners Act in 1935 (now known as eighteen U.South.C. § 1761(a)), and the Walsh-Healey Act in 1936.^[30] Walsh controlled the production of prison-made goods while Ashurst prohibited the distribution of such products in interstate transportation or commerce.^[30] Both statutes authorized federal criminal prosecutions for violations of state laws enacted pursuant to the Hawes-Cooper Act.^[30] Individual companies got involved again in 1979, when Congress passed a law establishing the Prison house Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners in some circumstances.^[31] PIECP relaxed the restrictions imposed under the Ashurst-Sumners and Walsh-Healey Acts, and allowed for the industry, auction and distribution of prisoner-made products across state lines.^[30] However, PIECP limited participation in the plan to 38 jurisdictions (afterwards increased to 50), and required each to employ to the U.S. Department of Justice for certification.^[30]

Co-ordinate to the International Labor Organization, in 2000–2011 wages in American prisons ranged between $0.23 and $ane.15 an hour. In California, prisoners earn between $0.30 and $0.95 an hour before deductions.^[32]

Over the years, the courts have held inmates may exist forced to work and are not protected by the constitution against involuntary servitude.^[33] They accept besides consistently held that inmates have no ramble right to compensation and that inmates are paid by the "grace of the land."^[33] Under the Federal Bureau of Prisons, all athletic sentenced prisoners were required to work, except those who participated full-time in education or other treatment programs or who were considered security risks.^[33] Correctional standards promulgated by the American Correctional Association provide that sentenced inmates, who are generally housed in maximum, medium, or minimum security prisons, be required to work and be paid for that piece of work.^[33] Some states crave, as with Arizona, all able-bodied inmates to work.^[34]

Inmates have reported that some private companies, such every bit Martori Farms, do not check for medical groundwork or age when pulling women for jobs.^[31]

Mod prison labor systems [edit]

The following list is not comprehensive. All U.S. state prison house systems and the federal organisation take some form of penal labor, although inmates are paid for their labor in well-nigh states (usually amounting to less than $1 per 60 minutes).^[35] Every bit of 2017, Arkansas, Georgia, and Texas did not pay inmates for whatsoever work whether within the prison (such as custodial piece of work and food services) or in land-owned businesses. Additionally, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and South Carolina immune unpaid labor for at least some jobs.

Mississippi for-turn a profit prison labor [edit]

Forced labor exists in many prisons. In Mississippi, Parchman Subcontract operated as a for-profit plantation, which yielded revenues for the state from its earliest years. Many prisoners were used to articulate the dense growth in the Mississippi bottomland, and so to cultivate the land for agriculture. By the mid-20th century, information technology had 21,000 acres (8,500 ha) under cultivation. In the late 20th century, prison conditions were investigated under civil rights laws, when abuses of prisoners and harsh working conditions were exposed. These revelations during the 1970s led the state to abandon the for-profit aspect of its forced labor from convicts and planned to hire a professional person penologist to head the prison. A state commission recommended reducing the size of acreage, to grow only what is needed for the prison.^[36]

California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation [edit]

The 2017 Northern California wildfires consumed over 201,000 acres of country and took 42 lives. The state fire bureau, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE), mobilized over 11,000 firefighters in response, of which 1,500 were prisoners of minimum security conservation camps overseen by the California Section of Corrections and Rehabilitation.^[37] 43 conservation camps for developed offenders exist in California and thirty to twoscore% of CAL Fire firefighters are inmates from these camps.^[37] Inmates within the firefighting programs receive two days off for every day they spend in the conservation camps and receive around Us$2 per hour. Most California inmate programs inside of institutions receive a little over $0.25 to $one.25 per hour for labor.^[38] The inmate firefighter camps have their origins in the prisoner work camps that congenital many of the roads across rural and remote areas of California during the early 1900s.^[37]

Texas Department of Criminal Justice [edit]

Responsible for the largest prison house population in the Us (over 140,000 inmates) the Texas Department of Criminal Justice is known to make extensive use of unpaid prison labor.^[39] Prisoners are engaged in various forms of labor with tasks ranging from agronomics and animal husbandary, to manufacturing soap and wearable items.^[39] The inmates receive no salary or monetary remuneration for their labor, simply receive other rewards, such as time credits, which could piece of work towards cutting down a prison house sentence and allow for early release nether mandatory supervision. Prisoners are allotted to work up to 12 hours per day.^[39] The penal labor system, managed by Texas Correctional Industries, were valued at Usa$88.nine million in 2014.^[39] The Texas Department of Criminal Justice states that the prisoner's free labor pays for room and board while the piece of work they perform in prison equips inmates with the skills and experience necessary to gain and maintain employment after they are released.^[39] Texas is 1 of the four states in the Usa that does not pay inmates for their labor in monetary funds, with the other states being Georgia, Arkansas, and Alabama.^[39]

Georgia Department of Corrections [edit]

Pat Biegler, director of the Georgia Public Works department stated that the prison house labor organization implemented in Georgia facilities saves the department around US$140,000 per week.^[40] The largest county prison house piece of work camp in Columbus, Georgia, Muscogee County Prison, saves the urban center around $17 to US$20 1000000 annually according to officials, with local entities likewise benefiting from the monetary funds the plan receives from the land of Georgia.^[40] Co-ordinate to Prison house Warden of Muscogee County Prison, Dwight Hamrick, the top priority is to provide prison labor to Columbus Consolidated Regime and to rehabilitate inmates, with all inmates being required to work. Inmates performing tasks related to sanitation, golf game courses, recycling, and landfills receive a monetary compensation of around US$3 per day, while those in jobs such equally facility maintenance, transportation, and street adornment do non receive any compensation.^[40]

Federal Prison Industries [edit]

In 2007, Federal Prison Industries reportedly paid inmates from US$0.23 per 60 minutes upwardly to a maximum of US$1.fifteen per hour^[41] to produce various appurtenances, including furniture,^[41] trunk armor,^[42] and combat helmets.^[43] In the aftermath of the 2021 storming of the U.s.a. Capitol, it was noted that FPI would receive priority when the federal government purchases products such as role article of furniture to replace what was damaged in the riots.^[13]

Prison labor legislation [edit]

Federal Prison house Industries (UNICOR or FPI) is a wholly owned United States government corporation created in 1934 that uses penal labor from the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) to produce goods and services. FPI is restricted to selling its products and services to federal government agencies,^{[44] [45]} with some recent exceptions.

The Prison house Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP) is a federal program that was initiated along with the American Legislative Commutation Council (ALEC) and the Prison house-Industries Act in 1979.^[46] Before these programs, prison labor for the private sector had been outlawed for decades to avoid competition.^[46] The introduction of prison labor in the individual sector, the implementation of PIECP, ALEC, and Prison-Industries Act in state prisons all contributed a substantial function in cultivating the prison house-industrial complex. Between the years 1980 through 1994, prison house industry profits jumped substantially from $392 one thousand thousand to $one.31 billion.^[46]

The Prison-Industries Human action allowed 3rd-party companies to buy prison manufactured appurtenances from prison factories and sell the products locally or send them across state lines.^[46] Through the program PIECP, there were "thirty jurisdictions with agile [PIE] operations." in states such as Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, and twelve others.^[46]

Response [edit]

Gratis Alabama Movement [edit]

Three prisoners – Melvin Ray, James Pleasant and Robert Earl Quango – who led work stoppages in Alabama prisons in January 2014 as part of the Free Alabama Movement have been in solitary confinement since the get-go of the labor strike. Protests took place in 3 Alabama prisons, and the motion has smuggled out videos and pictures of abusive conditions, and regime say the men volition remain in solitary solitude indefinitely. The prisoners' work stoppages and refusal to cooperate with government in Alabama are modeled on deportment that took place in the Georgia prison house system in December 2010. The strike leaders argue that refusing to piece of work is a tactic that would forcefulness prison authorities to hire compensated labor or to induce the prisoners to return to their jobs by paying a fair wage. Prisoners appear to be currently organizing in Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia and Washington.^[47]

Quango, one of the founders of the Gratuitous Alabama Movement, said: "We will not piece of work for free anymore. All the work in prisons, from cleaning to cutting grass to working in the kitchen, is done by inmate labor. [Well-nigh no prisoner] in Alabama is paid. Without us the prisons, which are slave empires, cannot office. Prisons, at the same time, charge us a diversity of fees, such as for our identification cards or wrist bracelets, and [impose] numerous fines, especially for possession of contraband. They charge us high phone and commissary prices. Prisons each twelvemonth are taking larger and larger sums of money from the inmates and their families. The land gets from united states of america millions of dollars in free labor so imposes fees and fines. You take [prisoners] that work in kitchens 12 to 15 hours a day and have done this for years and have never been paid."^[47]

Ray said "We do not believe in the political process ... We are not looking to politicians to submit reform bills. We aren't giving more money to lawyers. Nosotros don't believe in the courts. We will rely only on protests inside and outside of prisons and on targeting the corporations that exploit prison labor and finance the school-to-prison pipeline. Nosotros have focused our starting time boycott on McDonald's. McDonald's uses prisoners to process beef for patties and parcel bread, milk, craven products. We have called for a national Stop Campaign against McDonald's. We take identified this corporation to expose all the others. In that location are besides many corporations exploiting prison labor to try and take them all on at once."^[47]

Critics [edit]

Executive Director of the Brotherhood for American Manufacturing, Scott Paul stated that "It'south bad enough that our companies have to compete with exploited and forced labor in People's republic of china. They shouldn't have to compete confronting prison house labor here at domicile. The goal should be for other nations to aspire to the quality of life that Americans relish, non to discard our efforts through a downward competitive spiral."^[46]

Associate Editor of Prison Legal News, Alex Friedmann regards the prison labor organisation in the U.s.a. as role of a "confluence of similar interests" among corporations and politicians referring to the ascent of a prison-industrial complex. He stated, "This has been ongoing for decades, with prison house privatization contributing to the escalation of incarceration rates in the US."^[46]

Inmate strikes [edit]

From 2010 to 2015^[47] and again in 2016^[48] and 2018,^[49] some prisoners in the US refused to piece of work, protesting for meliorate pay, amend conditions and for the end of forced labor. Strike leaders have been punished with solitary confinement.^{[50] [51]}

The prison house strikes of 2018, sponsored past Jailhouse Lawyers Speak and the Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee (the latter a branch of the labor group Industrial Workers of the World) is considered by some observers^{[ specify ]} the largest in the state's history. In item, inmates objected to beingness excluded from the 13th amendment which forces them to work for pennies a day, a condition they affirm is tantamount to "modern-mean solar day slavery."^{[52] [53] [54]}

Alternative policies and reform [edit]

Prison house abolition movement [edit]

Prison Industrial Complex Abolitionism, led by the Critical Resistance Motion, seeks to achieve the goal of eliminating imprisonment, policing and surveillance and create lasting effective alternatives to prison house and penalisation. Their arroyo to abolitionism is a broad strategy since they believe that the prison house-industrial complex maintains oppression and inequalities through violence, punishment, and control over millions of incarcerated individuals. The organisation strives to build better models for hereafter strategies and views abolition as not merely a practical organizing tool but also a long-term goal.^[55]

Prison house labor contracts [edit]

In an effort to help inmates obtain employment post-release, legal scholars have argued that states should require in their contracts with individual employers that the employer cannot take a policy that prohibits employing former prison inmates afterwards they have been released.^[56]

Revitalizing Prison Industries [edit]

Prison labor and industries are heavily discouraged through regulations, laws, prohibitions, federal employment legislation and even the PIECP, which establishes its ain set of onerous requirements on employers, as massive incarceration is detrimental for the economy equally a whole. "How to Create American Manufacturing Jobs," published by the Tennessee Journal of Law & Policy, proposes that regulations and restrictive legislation be eliminated so that prisoners could negotiate direct with individual employers and produce appurtenances at present made exclusively overseas.^[57]

Encounter also [edit]

• 13th – Netflix documentary by Ava DuVernay which includes discussion of prison labor
• Labor camp
• Incarceration in the The states
• Prison–industrial circuitous

References [edit]

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3. ^ Gaes, G.A.; Saylor, W.Thousand. (1996). "PREP: Grooming Inmates through Industrial Work Participation, and Vocational and Apprenticeship". Corrections Direction Quarterly. 1.2.
4. ^ Wood, Josh (July 6, 2019). "'Most prisoners desire to work' – the shop where inmates' crafts fill the shelves". the Guardian . Retrieved January 28, 2022.
5. ^ "BOP: UNICOR". www.bop.gov . Retrieved February 17, 2021.
6. ^ Herraiz, Domingo S. (March 2004). "Prison Manufacture Enhancement Certification Plan" (PDF). National Criminal Justice Reference Service . Retrieved October 23, 2018.
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24. ^ John M. Brackett, "Cutting Costs by Cutting Lives: Prisoner Wellness and the Abolishment of Florida's Captive-Lease System." Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South, 2007, Vol. xiv#2 pp 69-83^{[ verification needed ]}
25. ^ Oshinsky, David 1000. (Apr 22, 1997). Worse than Slavery: Parchman Subcontract and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice. Free Printing. ISBN978-0684830957. p. 40: Arrests shot upwards dramatically; the number of state convicts quadrupled, from 272 in 1874 to 1,072 by 1877.
26. ^ Laws of the Land of New York Comprising the Constitution and the Acts of Legislature since the Revolution from the First to the Twentieth Session, Inclusive. Vol. III. Thomas Greenleaf. 1797. pp. 291–299. if such credit shall exceed the debit side of the account, it shall be in the discretion of the inspectors when such captive is discharged to give him or her a part or the whole of such backlog
27. ^ Lincoln, Charles Zebina (1906). The constitutional history of New York from the beginning of the colonial period to the year 1905 : showing the origin, evolution, and judicial construction of the constitution. Rochester, North.Y. : The Lawyers Co-operative Pub. Co. pp. 246–252.
28. ^ Land of New York Report of the Prison Survey Committee. J.B. Lyon. 1920. p. 119. This law, nevertheless, enacted under Governor Tompkins, was repealed the subsequent year.
29. ^ Twenty-Third Annual Study of the Executive Committee of the Prison house Clan of New York for 1867. C. Van Benthuysen & Sons. January 29, 1868. pp. 168–169. passed by the Legislature on the 15th April, 1817... 'And whereas, it is believed that a addiction of manufacture is the best preventive of vice—to encourage which habit in the criminals in the land prison, whom the state are desirous of reforming, it may be useful to allow them a reasonable portion of the fruits of their labor, to be gear up apart and secured for them or their families..."
30. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Sloan, Bob (2010). "The Prison Industries Enhancement Certification Program: Why Everyone Should be Concerned". Prison Legal News. Retrieved May 14, 2015.
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34. ^ Constituent Services Informational Handbook (PDF). Corrections ADC. 2013. p. xvi. Retrieved May 14, 2015.
35. ^ Sawyer, Wendy (April 10, 2017). "How much do incarcerated people earn in each country?". Prison Policy Initiative . Retrieved February 17, 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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37. ^ ^{a b c} "The California Inmates Fighting The Wine Country Wildfires". The Marshall Project . Retrieved April half-dozen, 2018.
38. ^ "Meet the inmates risking their lives to fight California wildfires". VICE News . Retrieved April 6, 2018.
39. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Walker, Jason Renard. "Unpaid Labor in Texas Prisons Is Modernistic-Day Slavery". Truthout . Retrieved April 6, 2018.
40. ^ ^{a b c} "Prison labor sparks debate". ledger-enquirer . Retrieved April 7, 2018.
41. ^ ^{a b} Federal Prison Industries RL32380 (PDF), Congressional Research Service, July 13, 2007
42. ^ GovTribe. "Department of the Army W91CRB08D0045-0015 To Unicor $42.5k". govtribe.com.
43. ^ "Investigative Summary Findings of Fraud and Other Irregularities Related to the Manufacture and Sale of Gainsay Helmets by the Federal Prison Industries and ArmorSource, LLC, to the Department of Defence, page 2" (PDF). United states of america Section of Justice. U.s. Department of Justice. Retrieved August xix, 2016.
44. ^ McCollum, William (1996). Federal Prison Industries, Inc: Hearing Before the Commission on the Judiciary, U.S. Business firm of Representatives. DIANE Publishing. p. 1. ISBN978-0-7567-0060-7.
45. ^ Title 18 U.Southward. Code § 4122 Section A - Administration of Federal Prison Industries
46. ^ ^{a b c d east f g} Elk, Mike; Sloan, Bob (August 1, 2011). "The Hidden History of ALEC and Prison house Labor". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved Apr vi, 2018.
47. ^ ^{a b c d} Hedges, Chris (June 2015). America'southward Slave Empire, Truthdig
48. ^ "The Largest Prison Strike in U.Southward. History Enters its Second Week". September 16, 2016.
49. ^ Lopez, German (August 22, 2018). "America's prisoners are going on strike in at least 17 states". Vox . Retrieved September xiii, 2018.
50. ^ Pilkington, Ed (August 21, 2018). "Us inmates stage nationwide prison labor strike over 'modern slavery'". The Guardian . Retrieved September 13, 2018.
51. ^ Fryer, Brooke (September 5, 2018). "US inmates sent to solitary confinement over 'prison slavery' strike". NITV News . Retrieved September xiii, 2018.
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53. ^ Corley, Cheryl (August 21, 2018). "U.Southward. Inmates Plan Nationwide Prison house Strike To Protest Labor Conditions". NPR. Retrieved September 13, 2018.
54. ^ Bozelko, Chandra; Lo, Ryan (August 25, 2018). "As prison strikes heat up, onetime inmates talk about horrible country of labor and incarceration". U.s.a. Today . Retrieved September 13, 2018.
55. ^ "What is the Motion-picture show? What is Abolition?". Critical Resistance . Retrieved April 7, 2018.
56. ^ Ajunwa, Ifeoma; Onwuachi-Willig, Angela (2018). "Combating Bigotry Against the Formerly Incarcerated in the Labor Market". Northwestern University Law Review. 112: 1385. Retrieved February xi, 2020.
57. ^ Gleissner, John (2013). "How to Create American Manufacturing Jobs". Tennessee Periodical of Law & Policy. 9 (3).

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States

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